Choosing and Assessing Exchange Rate Regimes: a Survey of the Literature
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-88702013000200002Keywords:
Exchange rate, currency crisis, optimal currency areaAbstract
This paper attempts to provide a comprehensive overview on the theoretical and empirical analysis of the selection and assessment of exchange rate regimes. The literature can be divided into two main groups: classical and modern. The first group refers to earlier studies examining the differences between floating and fixed exchange rate regimes. The second group is focused on the trade-off between credibility and flexibility, the economic performance and currency crisis, among others. In addition, this paper reviews why many countries follow de facto regimes different from their de jure regimes.Downloads
References
Abiad, A. (2003). Early-warning systems: A survey and a regime-switching approach (IMF Working Paper No. WP/03/32). International Monetary Fund.
Aghevli, B. B., Khan, M. S., & Montiel, P. J. (1991). Exchange rate policy in developing countries: Some analytical issues (Occasional Paper No. 78). International Monetary Fund.
Alesina, A., & Barro, R. J. (2001). Dollarization. American Economic Review, 91(2), 381–385.
Alesina, A., & Barro, R. J. (2002). Currency unions. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(2), 409–436. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355302753650283
Alesina, A., Barro, R. J., & Tenreyro, S. (2002). Optimal currency areas (NBER Working Paper No. 9072). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Alesina, A., & Wagner, A. (2006). Choosing (and reneging on) exchange rate regimes. Journal of the European Economic Association, 4(4), 770–799. https://doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2006.4.4.770
Arias, G., & Erlandsson, U. G. (2005). Improving early warning systems with a Markov-switching model [Unpublished manuscript]. Lund University.
Artis, M., Krolzig, H.-M., & Toro, J. (2004). The European business cycle. Oxford Economic Papers, 56(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/56.1.1
Asici, A. A. (2011). Exchange rate regime choice and currency crises. Economic Systems, 35(3), 419–436.
Bailliu, J., Lafrance, R., & Perrault, J.-F. (2003). Does exchange rate policy matter for growth? International Finance, 6(3), 381–414.
Barajas, A., Erickson, L., & Steiner, R. (2008). Fear of declaring: Do markets care what countries say about their exchange rate policies? IMF Staff Papers, 55(3), 445–480.
Barro, R. J., & Gordon, D. B. (1983a). A positive theory of monetary policy in a natural rate model. Journal of Political Economy, 91(4), 589–610. https://doi.org/10.1086/261167
Barro, R. J., & Gordon, D. B. (1983b). Rules, discretion, and reputation in a model of monetary policy. Journal of Monetary Economics, 12(1), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(83)90051-x
Bayoumi, T. (1994). A formal model of optimum currency areas. IMF Staff Papers, 41(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781451846171.001
Bénassy-Quéré, A., & Coeuré, B. (2002). The survival of intermediate exchange rate regimes (CEPII Working Paper No. 2002-07). CEPII.
Bénassy-Quéré, A., Coeuré, B., & Mignon, V. (2006). On the identification of de facto currency pegs. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, 20(1), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjie.2004.11.002
Benigno, P., & Missale, A. (2004). High public debt in currency crises: Fundamentals versus signaling effects. Journal of International Money and Finance, 23(2), 165–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2003.10.006
Berdiev, A., Kim, Y., & Chang, C. P. (2012). The political economy of exchange rate regimes in developed and developing countries. European Journal of Political Economy, 28(1), 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.06.007
Berg, A., & Borensztein, E. R. (2003). The pros and cons of full dollarization. In D. Salvatore, J. W. Dean, & T. D. Willett (Eds.), The dollarization debate (pp. 72–101). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0195155351.003.0004
Bird, G., Mandilaras, A., & Popper, H. (2012). Explaining shifts in exchange rate regimes (Discussion Papers in Economics No. DP 13/12). University of Surrey.
Bird, G., & Rowlands, D. (2005). Bi-polar disorder: Exchange rate regimes, economic crises and the IMF (Discussion Papers in Economics No. DP 07/05). University of Surrey.
Bleaney, M., & Francisco, M. (2007). Exchange rate regimes, inflation and growth in developing countries: An assessment. The B.E. Journal of Macroeconomics, 7(1), 1–18.
Bordo, M. D. (2003). Exchange rate regime choice in historical perspective (IMF Working Paper No. WP/03/160). International Monetary Fund.
Boyer, R. S. (1978). Optimal foreign exchange market intervention. Journal of Political Economy, 86(6), 1045–1055. https://doi.org/10.1086/260727
Broda, C. (2004). Terms of trade and exchange rate regimes in developing countries. Journal of International Economics, 63(1), 31–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1996(03)00043-6
Bubula, A., & Ötker-Robe, I. (2002). The evolution of exchange rate regimes since 1990: Evidence from de facto policies (IMF Working Paper No. WP/02/155). International Monetary Fund.
Calderón, C., & Schmidt-Hebbel, K. (2005). Choosing an exchange rate regime (Working Paper No. 494). Central Bank of Chile.
Calvo, G. (1999). On dollarization [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Economics, University of Maryland.
Calvo, G. (2001). Capital markets and the exchange rate: With special reference to the dollarization debate in Latin America. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 33(2), 30–45.
Calvo, G., Izquierdo, A., & Talvi, E. (2003). Sudden stops, the real exchange rate and fiscal sustainability: Argentina's lessons (NBER Working Paper No. 9828). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199271402.003.0010
Calvo, G., & Reinhart, C. (2000). Fixing for your life (NBER Working Paper No. 8006). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Calvo, G., & Reinhart, C. (2001). Reflections on dollarization. In A. Alesina & R. J. Barro (Eds.), Currency unions (pp. 39–47). Hoover Institution Press.
Calvo, G., & Reinhart, C. (2002). Fear of floating. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(2), 379–408. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355302753650274
Caramazza, F., & Aziz, J. (1998). Fixed or flexible? Getting the exchange rate right in the 1990s (Economic Issues No. 13). International Monetary Fund. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781455220038.051.ch001
Cerra, V., & Saxena, S. C. (2002). Contagion, monsoons, and domestic turmoil in Indonesia's currency crisis. Review of International Economics, 10(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9396.00315
Chang, R., & Velasco, A. (2003). Dollarization: Analytical issues. In E. Levy-Yeyati & F. Sturzenegger (Eds.), Dollarization: Debates and policy alternatives (pp. 53–76). MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2481.003.0003
Chen, C. (2005). How well can we predict currency crises? Evidence from a three-regime Markov-switching model [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Economics, University of California, Davis.
Combes, J.-L., Minea, A., & Sow, M. (2012). Crises and exchange rate regimes: Time to break down the bipolar view [Unpublished manuscript]. School of Economics, University of Auvergne.
Corsetti, G., & Mackowiak, B. (2005). A fiscal perspective on currency crises and the original sin. In B. Eichengreen & R. Hausmann (Eds.), Other people's money: Debt denomination and financial instability in emerging market economies (pp. 68–94). University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226194578.003.0004
Coudert, V., & Dubert, M. (2005). Does exchange rate regime explain differences in economic results for Asian countries? Journal of Asian Economics, 16(5), 874–895.
Cukierman, A., Webb, S. B., & Neyapti, B. (1992). Measuring the independence of central banks and its effects on policy outcomes. World Bank Economic Review, 6(3), 353–398. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/6.3.353
Daniel, B. C. (1997). Fiscal policy and the predictability of exchange rate collapse (IMF Working Paper No. WP/97/133). International Monetary Fund.
Daniel, B. C. (2001). A fiscal theory of currency crises. International Economic Review, 42(4), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2354.00142
De Grauwe, P., & Schnabl, G. (2005). Exchange rate stability, inflation and growth in (South) Eastern and Central Europe. Review of Development Economics, 12(3), 530–549.
De Kock, G., & Grilli, V. (1993). Fiscal policies and the choice of exchange rate regime. The Economic Journal, 103(417), 347–358. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234773
Dornbusch, R. (1976). Expectations and exchange rate dynamics. Journal of Political Economy, 84(6), 1161–1176. https://doi.org/10.1086/260506
Dornbusch, R. (2001). Fewer monies, better monies (NBER Working Paper No. 8324). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Dreyer, J. S. (1978). Determinants of exchange rate regimes for currencies of developing countries: Some preliminary results. World Development, 6(4), 437–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(78)90093-1
Dubas, J. M., Lee, B.-J., & Mark, N. C. (2005). Effective exchange rate classifications and growth (NBER Working Paper No. 11272). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Edwards, S. (1996). The determinants of the choice between fixed and flexible exchange rate regimes (NBER Working Paper No. 5756). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Edwards, S. (2001). Dollarization: Myths and realities. Journal of Policy Modeling, 23(2), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0161-8938(01)00045-x
Edwards, S. (2006). Monetary unions, external shocks and economic performance: A Latin American perspective. International Economics and Economic Policy, 3(3–4), 225–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10368-006-0056-2
Edwards, S., & Magendzo, I. (2001). Dollarization, inflation and growth (NBER Working Paper No. 8671). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Edwards, S., & Magendzo, I. (2003a). A currency of one's own? An empirical investigation on dollarization and independent currency unions (NBER Working Paper No. 9514). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Edwards, S., & Magendzo, I. (2003b). Strict dollarization and economic performance: An empirical investigation (NBER Working Paper No. 9820). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.1093/0195155351.003.0006
Edwards, S., & Savastano, M. (1999). Exchange rates in emerging economies: What do we know? What do we need to know? (NBER Working Paper No. 7228). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Eichengreen, B. (1994). International monetary arrangements for the 21st century. Brookings Institution.
Eichengreen, B., Rose, A. K., & Wyplosz, C. (1996). Contagious currency crises: First tests. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 98(4), 463–484. https://doi.org/10.2307/3440879
Fleming, M. J. (1962). Domestic financial policies under fixed and under floating exchange rates. IMF Staff Papers, 9(3), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.2307/3866091
Frankel, J. A. (1996). The endogeneity of the optimal currency area criteria (NBER Working Paper No. 5700). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Frankel, J. A. (1999). No single currency regime is right for all countries or at all times (Essays in International Finance No. 215). Princeton University.
Frankel, J. A. (2003). Experience of and lessons from exchange rate regimes in emerging economies (Research Working Paper No. RWP03-011). John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
Frankel, J. A., & Rose, A. K. (1996). Currency crashes in emerging markets: An empirical treatment. Journal of International Economics, 41(3-4), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1996(96)01441-9
Frankel, J., & Wei, S.-J. (2008). Estimation of de facto exchange rate regimes: Synthesis of the techniques for inferring flexibility and basket weights. IMF Staff Papers, 55(3), 384–416. https://doi.org/10.1057/imfsp.2008.18
Fratzscher, M. (2002). On currency crises and contagion (Working Paper Series No. 139). European Central Bank.
Frenkel, R., & Rapetti, M. (2012). Exchange rate regimes in the major Latin American countries since the 1950s: Lessons from history. Revista de Historia Económica, 30(1), 157–188. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0212610911000292
Friedman, M. (1953). Choice, chance, and the personal distribution of income. Journal of Political Economy, 61(4), 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1086/257390
Galindo, A., & Izquierdo, A. (2003). Sudden stops and exchange rate strategies in Latin America (Working Paper No. 484). Inter-American Development Bank.
Gallego, F., & Jones, G. (2005). Exchange rate interventions and insurance: Is fear of floating a cause for concern? (Working Paper No. 326). Central Bank of Chile.
Genberg, H., & Swoboda, A. K. (2005). Exchange rate regimes: Does what countries say matter? IMF Staff Papers, 52(Special Issue), 129–141.
Ghosh, A. R., Gulde, A.-M., Ostry, J. D., & Wolf, H. (1997). Does the nominal exchange rate regime matter? (NBER Working Paper No. 5874). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Ghosh, A. R., Gulde, A.-M., & Wolf, H. C. (2002). Exchange rate regimes: Choices and consequences. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2898.001.0001
Giavazzi, F., & Giovannini, A. (1989). Limiting exchange rate flexibility. MIT Press.
Giavazzi, F., & Pagano, M. (1988). The advantage of tying one's hands: EMS discipline and central bank credibility. European Economic Review, 32(5), 1055–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(88)90065-7
Habermeier, K., Kokenyne, A., Veyrune, R., & Anderson, H. (2009). Revised system for the classification of exchange rate arrangements (IMF Working Paper No. 09/211). International Monetary Fund.
Hamilton, J. D. (1989). Analysis of time series subject to changes in regimes. Econometrica, 57(2), 357–384.
Hamilton, J. D. (1990). A new approach to the economic analysis of nonstationary time series and the business cycle. Journal of Econometrics, 45, 39–70.
Hausmann, R., Gavin, M., Pagés-Serra, C., & Stein, E. (1999). Financial turmoil and the choice of exchange rate regime (Working Paper No. 400). Inter-American Development Bank.
Hausmann, R., & Powell, A. (1999). Dollarization: Issues of implementation [Unpublished manuscript]. Inter-American Development Bank.
Heller, H. R. (1978). Determinants of exchange rate practices. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 10, 308–321.
Henderson, D. W. (1979). Financial policies in open economies. American Economic Review, 69(2), 232–239.
Holden, P., Holden, M., & Suss, E. C. (1979). The determinants of exchange rate flexibility: An empirical investigation. Review of Economics and Statistics, 61(3), 327–333. https://doi.org/10.2307/1926061
Husain, A. M., Mody, A., & Rogoff, K. S. (2005). Exchange rate regime durability and performance in developing versus advanced economies. Journal of Monetary Economics, 52(1), 35–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2004.07.001
Imam, P. (2010). Exchange rate choices of microstates (IMF Working Paper No. WP/10/12). International Monetary Fund.
International Monetary Fund. (1999). Exchange arrangements and currency convertibility: Developments and issues (World Economic and Financial Surveys). International Monetary Fund.
Jeanne, O., & Masson, P. R. (2000). Currency crises, sunspots and Markov-switching regimes. Journal of International Economics, 50(2), 327–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1996(99)00007-0
Juhn, G., & Mauro, P. (2002). Long-run determinants of exchange rate regimes: A simple sensitivity analysis (IMF Working Paper No. 02/104). International Monetary Fund.
Klein, M. W., & Shambaugh, J. C. (2010). Exchange rate regimes in the modern era. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262013659.003.0001
Krolzig, H.-M. (1997). International business cycles: Regime shifts in the stochastic process of economic growth (Applied Economics Discussion Paper No. 194). Department of Economics, Oxford University.
Krugman, P. (1979). A model of balance of payments crises. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 11, 311–325.
Kydland, F. E., & Prescott, E. C. (1977). Rules rather than discretion: The inconsistency of optimal plans. Journal of Political Economy, 85(3), 473–493. https://doi.org/10.1086/260580
Larraín, F., & Tavares, J. (2003). Regional currencies versus dollarization: Options for Asia and the Americas. The Journal of Policy Reform, 6(1), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/13841280309602
Larraín, F., & Velasco, A. (2001). Exchange rate policy in emerging market economies: The case for floating (Essays in International Finance No. 224). Princeton University.
Levy-Yeyati, E., & Sturzenegger, F. (2001). Exchange rate regimes and economic performance. IMF Staff Papers, 47(Special Issue), 62–98.
Levy-Yeyati, E., & Sturzenegger, F. (2002). A de facto classification of exchange rate regimes: A methodological note [Unpublished manuscript]. Universidad Torcuato Di Tella.
Levy-Yeyati, E., & Sturzenegger, F. (2003a). Dollarization: A primer. In E. Levy-Yeyati & F. Sturzenegger (Eds.), Dollarization: Debates and policy alternatives (pp. 1–52). MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2481.003.0002
Levy-Yeyati, E., & Sturzenegger, F. (2003b). To float or to fix: Evidence on the impact of exchange rate regimes on growth. American Economic Review, 93(4), 1173–1193. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803769206250
Levy-Yeyati, E., & Sturzenegger, F. (2005). Classifying exchange rate regimes: Deeds vs. words. European Economic Review, 49, 1603–1635.
Levy-Yeyati, E., Sturzenegger, F., & Gluzmann, P. A. (2013). Fear of appreciation. Journal of Development Economics, 101, 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.11.008
Levy-Yeyati, E., Sturzenegger, F., & Reggio, I. (2010). On the endogeneity of exchange rate regimes. European Economic Review, 54(5), 659–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2009.12.004
Martínez Pería, M. S. (2002). A regime-switching approach to the study of speculative attacks: A focus on EMS crises. Empirical Economics, 27(2), 299–334.
Masson, P. R. (2001). Exchange rate regime transition. Journal of Development Economics, 64(2), 571–586.
McKinnon, R. I. (1963). Optimum currency areas. The American Economic Review, 53(4), 717–725.
McKinnon, R. I. (1981). The exchange rate and macroeconomic policy: Changing postwar perceptions. Journal of Economic Literature, 19(2), 531–537.
McKinnon, R., & Schnabl, G. (2004). The East Asian dollar standard, fear of floating, and original sin. Review of Development Economics, 8(3), 331–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2004.00237.x
Melitz, J. (1995). A suggested reformulation of the theory of optimal currency areas. Open Economies Review, 6, 281–298.
Melvin, M. (1985). The choice of an exchange rate system and macroeconomic stability. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 17(4, Part 1), 467–478.
Mendoza, E. G. (2001). The benefits of dollarization when stabilization policy lacks credibility and financial markets are imperfect. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 33(Part 2), 440–474.
Mendoza, E. G. (2002). Why should emerging economies give up national currencies? A case for institutions substitution (NBER Working Paper No. 8950). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Mundell, R. A. (1961). A theory of optimum currency areas. American Economic Review, 51(4), 657–665.
Mundell, R. A. (1963). Capital mobility and stabilization policy under fixed and flexible exchange rates. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 29(4), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.2307/139336
Mussa, M., Masson, P., Swoboda, A., Jadresic, E., Mauro, P., & Berg, A. (2000). Exchange rate regimes in an increasingly integrated world economy (Occasional Paper No. 193). International Monetary Fund.
Nashashibi, K., & Bazzoni, S. (1993). Alternative exchange rate strategies and fiscal performance in Sub-Saharan Africa (IMF Working Paper No. WP/93/68). International Monetary Fund.
Nitithanprapas, I., & Willett, T. D. (2002). Classifying exchange rate regimes [Unpublished manuscript]. The Claremont Colleges.
Obstfeld, M. (1996). Models of currency crises with self-fulfilling features. European Economic Review, 40(3-5), 1037–1048. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00111-5
Obstfeld, M., & Rogoff, K. (1995). The mirage of fixed exchange rates. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(Fall), 73–96. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.9.4.73
Petreski, M. (2009). Analysis of exchange-rate regime effect on growth: Theoretical channels and empirical evidence with panel data (Economics Discussion Paper No. 2009-49). Kiel Institute for the World Economy.
Poirson, H. (2002). How do countries choose their exchange rate regime? (IMF Working Paper No. WP/01/46). International Monetary Fund.
Poole, W. (1970). Optimal choice of monetary policy instruments in a simple stochastic macro model. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 84(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.2307/1883009
Ramcharan, R. (2007). Does the exchange rate regime matter for real shocks? Evidence from windstorms and earthquakes. Journal of International Economics, 73(1), 31–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2006.12.004
Reinhart, C., & Rogoff, K. S. (2004). The modern history of exchange rate arrangements: A reinterpretation. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355304772839515
Rogoff, K. S. (1985). The optimal degree of commitment to an intermediate monetary target. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 100(4), 1169–1190. https://doi.org/10.2307/1885679
Rogoff, K. S., Husain, A. M., Mody, A., Brooks, R., & Oomes, N. (2003). Evolution and performance of exchange rate regimes (IMF Working Paper No. WP/03/243). International Monetary Fund.
Savvides, A. (1990). Real exchange rate variability and the choice of exchange rate regime by developing countries. Journal of International Money and Finance, 9(4), 440–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5606(90)90021-q
Savvides, A. (1993). Pegging the exchange rate and the choice of a standard by LDCs: A joint formulation. Journal of Economic Development, 18(2), 107–125.
Schmitt-Grohé, S., & Uribe, M. (2001). Stabilization policy and the costs of dollarization. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 33(2), 482–509.
Shambaugh, J. C. (2004). The effect of fixed exchange rates on monetary policy. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(1), 330–357. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355304772839605
Svensson, L. (2000). Open economy inflation targeting. Journal of International Economics, 50, 155–183.
Tanzi, V. (1977). Inflation, lags in collection and the real value of tax revenue. IMF Staff Papers, 24(1), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.2307/3866540
Tavlas, G. S. (2009). The benefits and costs of monetary union in Southern Africa: A critical survey of the literature. Journal of Economic Surveys, 23(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2008.00555.x
Tornell, A., & Velasco, A. (1994). Fiscal policy and the choice of exchange rate regime (Working Paper No. 303). Inter-American Development Bank.
Tornell, A., & Velasco, A. (1995). Fixed versus flexible exchange rates: Which provides more fiscal discipline? (NBER Working Paper No. 5108). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Velasco, A. (1996). Fixed exchange rates: Credibility, flexibility and multiplicity. European Economic Review, 40(3-5), 1023–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00112-3
Von Hagen, J., & Zhou, J. (2007). The choice of exchange rate regimes in developing countries: A multinomial panel analysis. Journal of International Money and Finance, 26(7), 1071–1094.
Wickham, P. (1985). The choice of exchange rate regime in developing countries. IMF Staff Papers, 32(2), 248–288. https://doi.org/10.2307/3866841
Willett, T. D. (2002). Fear of floating needn't imply fixed rates: Feasible options for intermediate exchange rate regimes [Unpublished manuscript]. The Claremont Colleges.
Williamson, J. (2000). Exchange rate regimes for emerging markets: Reviving the intermediate option. Institute for International Economics.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2013 Alexis Cruz-Rodriguez

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Article usage
- ViewsTimes this article's page was opened since the journal started recording statistics. One person can visit more than once.
- 526
- DownloadsTimes the full text of this article (usually the PDF) was opened or downloaded.
- 1,001
All time, as recorded by the journal.
Among the top 13% by views · last 2 yearsCompared with all the journal's articles by views in the last 2 years, this one is among the top 13%.
Last 2 years: 115 views, 292 downloads.
CitationsTimes other scholarly works cited this article, according to OpenAlex and Crossref. The two indexes cover different sources, so their counts differ. : OpenAlex 8 · Crossref 1
Main countries of traffic origin:Countries this article was consulted from, according to the internet connection. They are not necessarily people. South Africa 22% · Poland 13% · Singapore 9%
1.90 downloads per view (journal average 1.65).Downloads of the full text for every abstract view of this article, compared with the whole journal.
Explore the journal's metrics
